The Use of Photography as Historical Evidence Essay

The Use of Photography as Historical Evidence - Essay Example These photographs enhance and elevate the understanding of historians and provide them in-depth information regarding the history and past civilizations and hence, they come up with the enlightening facts regarding the people and societies from the past. The access to important photograph makes possible the sound interpretation and understanding of the historical events and civilizations illuminated by the historian's own knowledge. The historians utilize the photographs conveying a message, specific event, or any facts relevant to historical periods as evidences and proves of the events they point in the course of re-assembling the patches from past life and explicating it to the world. They also use these as evidences to connect or synchronize one historical event or fact to another so as to highlight the causes or significance of an event in the light of a photographed fact and reality. The photographs not only assist the historians in finding out the social events and conditions of the historical era but also elaborate the occupational and work-related situation being confronted by the people of past civilizations.

An EVil Cradling - Rape Commentary Essay Example for Free

An EVil Cradling Rape Commentary Essay This passage from Brian Keenans An Evil Cradling describes in first person narrative the scene when Said beats Brian in a manner analogous to a rape. This event gives us an insight into the guards weaknesses and their dependency on the hostages, making them in a paradoxical way- the actual prisoners. On the other hand, Brians and Johns defiance and mutual support suggest the rising determination which gives them control over the guards. Throughout this passage, the author demonstrates us that mental resistance is more powerful than any physical abuse, and Brian even states that the later feeds the first. The narrator claims that There was a part of me they could never bind nor abuse nor take from me. This suggests that physical maltreatment will never be able to reach into peoples minds, because mental strength cannot be bent. Brian also discovers that his resistance was a joyful thing and that the more he was beaten the stronger he became. However, the narrator makes it clear that it was not strength of the arm, nor of body but a huge determination never to give in to these men. This shows that physical exploitation and abuse humiliates their body, but at the same time it empowers intellectual strength and might. The limitations of the beatings are further emphasised in the quotations the blows and the bruises and the kicks hurt me but I felt no pain and I did not fear him. These suggest that the expected effects of the beatings like pain and fear, which could have been used as weapons against the prisoners, were no longer applicable for Brian and John. In this way, the hostages possess the ultimate power, the psychological one which gives them control over the guards making them their slaves. In the course of this passage is suggested that Said is sexually repressed by his religion and so in an attempt to relieve this he beats prisoners in a sexually excited manner. The narrator describes him as a violent lover and his abuse of my body a kind of rape. A lover implies a need for love and possibly sex. However, the guards strict religious views try to inhibit these natural feelings, and as the women in Lebanon are forbidden from having relationships with men before they are married, many men might find themselves in a controversial situation. To shows their masculinity, they turn into violent lovers and try to prove their power by physically subduing others. Brians summary of Said as a man so filled with fear and fascinated by violence and obsessed with sex seems to confirm this point. The guards are fearful and confused because of their repressed emotions that cause them frustration and anger. This explains their sudden changes in behaviour that occur throughout the novel from being caring and innocent into beating and humiliating the prisoners. Said is illustrated by the narrator as a wild and repugnant, almost animal-like person. While beating the prisoners the guard is silent and never talks to them. This implies his savagery, almost as if he lost his ability to speak, which makes him similar to an animal. The fact that he comes by night, shows that he wants to remain hidden from the view this further emphasising his feral inclinations during these moments. Brian gives a detailed account about Saids smell which was a mixture of sweat, strong sweetness and garlic, all of these combining into a violent aroma, which filled the room. These physical portrayals of his scent convey the feeling of disgust and loathing that Brian felt for the duration of this mental rape. The extract I sniffed the air like an animal suggests that something savage and inhuman happened, that Saids assault was beyond the boundaries of a humane deed. On the other hand, we have Brian and John whos humane gestures are highlighted by Saids savage behaviour. Initially Brian claims that he felt an elemental rage and he imagines the pleasure that he would gain from castrating Said. However, after a short while they both laughed together and the moment of violence became meaningless. This suggests that humour gives them sufficient strength to overcome their frustrations and unlike the guards they dont have to turn into violence to relieve their disturbances. After the fierce scene, the two whispered soft words of comfort and reassurance to each other. This emphasises the power of love, friendship, mutual support and provides a more positive and emotional sight after the violent event of the rape. Throughout the novel the hostages and the guards try to overcome their own fears, doubts and frustrations. This passage from the chapter Rape illustrates the ways in which they attempt to do so. Brian and John conquer these negative feelings by supporting, loving and laughing with each other. However, the confined fanatical views of the guards dont allow them to do so, so they seek control and relief by physically abusing others. In spite of this it seems that the psychological defiance of the hostages is a more powerful weapon than the beatings of the guards and so the ones that are somewhat in control in the prison are not the sentry, but the prisoners themselves. In this way, the author nicely concludes that humane and caring behaviour will triumph over brutality and violence.

Marketing strategy for a LAN gaming centre

Marketing strategy for a LAN gaming centre Our business which is called Pro-Gamers, is a LAN gaming centre and an entertainment area for people whom are interested in playing computer and console games. It will be useful to explain what LAN gaming is. LAN means Local Area Network that enables more than one person can play in the same game environment at the same time,(Wikipedia) In other words, it is simply a network of devices and computers in a given area. In the light of the information about the meaning of LAN, LAN game centre is a business where a person can use a computer connected over a lan to other computers in order to play multiplayer computer games. (http://wn.com/LAN_gaming_center) LAN game centres are becoming common and well known in the world wide. There are over 650 LAN game centres in the US and 90% of the LAN game centres in the world are in China (Wikipedia). We are living in a computer era now and computer games are becoming more and more popular in the world especially for the new generation. Therefore, this creates us a good opportunity to setup this kind of business in this North West region of United Kingdom as further market research shows the laciness in this kind of gaming centres and identifying such market gap we are going to establish this kind of gaming centre in the Liverpool region. 1.1 Location and focused customer groups: We are planning to launch our business model in the areas which are close to the four universities in Liverpool because LAN game centre is more related to young people. So our focus customer group is students especially international students. Students have large groups in general and they tend to play such games together in the same environment. However, it cant be easy for international students to find chance in order to play computer games, especially LAN games. Local students have their own game consoles and convenient computers in their houses that enable them to play such games comfortably. Because of this reason, we are focusing on international students and it is a well known fact that there are many Chinese students in Liverpool, considering the majority of LAN game centres are in China, we have a significant opportunity. 1.2 Collaborations: In terms of our collaborations, we are planning to work with the organisation of Interactive Gaming UK which is professional in LAN gaming in UK. The IGUK provides professional support to new LAN gaming centres. So, we gain another significant opportunity to make a successful start up process. 1.3 Business: 1.3.1 Structure: Our business models structure is divided into two parts. First one is about the products and services, and the second is about the platforms. With regard to the products and services, we are providing project rooms to our customers with wide screens for watching sports games such as football for British and cricket games for Indians. We have a small food court as well in order to have some drinks, snacks, sandwiches while customers are playing games. In terms of our platforms, 1.3.2 Equipments: We arrange high end Pcs, X-box 360 and play station 3 (PS3) with LCD TVs so our customers can play separately or together with their friends. 1.3.3 Products: On the other hand, we also provide special memberships separated by their willingness of playing platforms such as Pro-Gamers PC for computers users, Pro-Gamers X for x-box users and Pro-Gamers PS for play station users. It is an opportunity for the customers to pay less and the same for us as well because we make discounts for membership cards holders. 1.4 Future purpose: As mentioned in the introduction part, our business model is a LAN game centre and the popularity of playing such games is getting bigger day by day in the world wide. The most important example about the popularity of LAN games is the World Cyber Games. It is an international e-sports event arranged by Korean Company World Cyber Game Inc. and backed by Samsung and Microsoft. (http://www.wcg.com/6th/main.asp) It is the largest gaming festival celebrated once a year and more than one million visitors come every year to this LAN game event.( http://www.bukisa.com/articles/362457_the-top-pro-video-game-competitions) In world Cyber Game Championship, there are specific games which are quite common in the world such as counter strike and each country has its own teams to represent. The teams are playing against each other to win the World Cyber Game Championship. It can be deduced from the information above that this championship is the hugest and the most popular one in the world and the biggest companies are in support of this big event such as Samsung, Microsoft, Dell Alienware. Our future purpose is to create a LAN game team sponsor them and send them to represent UK in the World Cyber Game Championship by means of our business. Therefore, we will expand our business to the world wide and be a well known and famous game centre, and on later expansions of such teams we will be introducing our own teams from the countries in which where we will be operating our LAN-Game centre, in this way we are in an option to enter into the International market and make our feature in the game centres. 1.5 The uniqueness of our business model: It is the fact that uniqueness is one of the most significant features for a new small business in the start up process. It is the essential point that enables small businesses to run and make profit. If there are some important competitors in that business area, it will be so difficult for new businesses to grow. Considering our business model, we have this significant feature, we are unique in Liverpool. There are some LAN gamin centres in UK in different regions but in North West region which Liverpool is located, there is no LAN gaming centre. (http://lancenters.com/Default.aspx) The locations of the LAN gaming centres in UK are shown region by region in the table below. Approaches to Start up Process: Every business start up is a unique event. Everyone has a different set of skills and experiences, which may give rise to entrepreneurship opportunities (David Deakins and Mark Freel), e.g. personal SWOT. Everyone wants their launched business to be stable, profitable, and manageable. This is only achieved by selecting the prior approach model which fits within the business idea. Therefore every business organization should have to consider all the aspects of setting-up a business. According to David Deakins and Mark Freel there are three types of approaches in setting-up a business, they are: I. Intuitive approach, II. Methodological approach and III. Incremental approach. According to the business start-up approaches given by David Deakins and Mark Freel, our business idea i.e., setting up a game centre (pro-gamers) in Liverpool resembles to both intuitive approach and incremental approach. Where intuitive approach has the upper hand than incremental approach. Intuitive approach: Carl Jung noted that intuitive approach does not denote something contrary to reason. But something outside the province of reason. It is neither a magical sixth sense nor a paranormal process. Intuition is not the opposite of rationality, nor is it a process of guessing. it is a sophisticated form of expert hones over years of job specific, experience (prietula Simon, 1989). Therefore intuitive business approach means just start up from nowhere, with strong personal belief in the idea and with minimal planning. Intuitive approach is an opportunistic and tends to be high risk because of minimal planning. Therefore as our business idea to launch a game centre in Liverpool, intuitive approach suited our business idea because of the following factors, Opportunistic. Strong personal belief in idea. Minimal planning. Can be viewed by some as the true entrepreneurial approach. Has the advantage of speed. Tends to be high risk. The above are some of the factors of intuitive approach (entrepreneurship and small firms 5th edition by David Deakins and Margarent Fletcher). 2.1 STAGES IN THE START-UP PROCESS: Everyone who are intended to launch their new business in the market should undergo a number of stages in the start-up process of a business. Without considering the stages, one cannot launch a profitable business. Similarly we have considered the stages in the start up process in our business idea, which gave us a clear idea on the opportunities and validating the idea of our business. Thus the following are the stages in the start-up process of a business. Formation of the idea. Opportunity recognition. Validating the idea. Entry in to entrepreneurship. Launch and development of the ongoing business. Formation of the idea: The seed stage of your business life cycle is when your business is just a thought or an idea. This is the very conception or birth of a new business. This is the stage where idea is formulated. Opportunity recognition: Most seed stage companies will have to overcome the challenge of market acceptance and pursue one niche opportunity. The seed stage business should recognise the opportunities for their business to move to the next stage. In our business idea we had recognised a great opportunity, because there is no game centre located in the north-west of the United Kingdom which provides lan gaming, play station gaming etc. Validating the idea: Validating the idea is an important stage where one should validate his/her idea, and ensure that it really solid enough for ones personal investment of time and money. Therefore validation means collecting the prior information to validate the business plan. In our case we gathered the information and validated the business idea. Launch and development of ongoing business: Launch and development of an ongoing business is the last stage of the stages in the start-up process of a business (David Deakins and Mark Freel, 2009). It is the stage where the business idea is finally launched. To launch and develop the game centre in Liverpool we have to consider some of the factors like, business idea is : Depending on budget Organizing events for the awareness among the people Expansion : infrastructure Food court Cafà © and bar Projector rooms 2.2 Start-up options of a business: To launch every business plan into business activity there are four options to start up a business. According to David Deakins and Mark Freel they described start-up options of a business into the following categories. They are. Starting from scratch. Buying a going concern. Buying a franchise. Management buy-out/ Management buy-in. Therefore according to David Deakins and Mark Freel the best start-up option of a business, which fits in our business idea, is starting from scratch. Starting from scratch: Starting a business from scratch can be the most rewarding method of business start-up. Unlike Franchising, Referral Marketing and Buying a business- you are 100% on your own. Before you dive in at the deep end, there are plenty of things you can do to increase your chance of success. There is a better opportunity to know the market and competition, creating a realistic business plan etc. Our business idea fits starting from scratch start up option,because as there is no such game centres in the north-west region of UK which provides different ranges of fun facilities. Therefore it will be 100% of our own implementation. Therefore starting from scratch got both advantages and dis-advantages. Thus the following are some of them Advantages: Initial investment level is decided by yourself or your ability to attract investment. Many organisations offer support / subsidies / funding. You will have the chance to explore new business concepts / formulae. No restrictions on your business methods. Control expansion to suit. Ability to adapt quickly to changing economic circumstances. Great sense of achievement and ability to say I told you so. Potential to sell, franchise or float on stock market once business has established. Disadvantages: Most business start-ups fail in their first year. Takes time to build up the business. No goodwill from customers and suppliers. Ability for your friends to say I told you so. Potentially high risk than all the other options. 2.3 Market research and marketing: Market research: In todays world as the gaming industry is booming to an extent, many of the gaming companies are competing between each other to become the best. Therefore many of the game centres in UK are trying to make good business with this opportunity. As there are many lan gaming centres spread in UK, north west of UK doesnt got any. Therefore according to the IGUK (Interactive game United Kingdom) list of lan gaming centres, north-west of UK is a game centre free zone. Therefore our business idea is to fill up the market gap. Therefore we would like to launch a lan gaming centre in Liverpool to cover the market gap. Market targeting: According to our business idea, i.e. launching a Lan gaming centre in north-west of UK, Liverpool. We mainly focus on people between the age group of 12-20 (youth) because people of that age group are more attracted to play computer games. So we have mainly concentrated on the people between that age group. Our main target is to attract the students of different universities, schools etc. We mainly focus on international students because numbers of international students are un-able to play the games which they would play in their home countries. The main dis advantage or limitation of this business idea is the age group of the people, because people of above 25 years will not have interest to play computer games. As our business idea has the age limitation criteria, we cannot attract the whole market. Therefore we need to capture the young generation market to achieve the goals. When it comes to market targeting there are many issues which we have to consider. They are, How to target the market? Whom to target? Can the targeted market is enough to achieve the profits? Marketing and marketing strategies: As one of the famous scholar described in his words the meaning of marketing that Marketing is the social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and what through creating and exchanging products and values with others, (PHILIP KOTLER). Every business has to market its products and its services to the consumers according to consumer needs and wants. Every business has to market its products and services or people will be unaware of that particular brand. Every company follows their own marketing strategies to attract customers. Without implementing marketing strategies one cannot attract the customers. In our business proposal as the main target is on young generation, we are mainly focusing on the young minds. We are planning all kind of marketing strategies to attract them. Some of the marketing strategies are as follows. Distributing palm plates in all the universities, schools etc in Liverpool. Organising events to increase awareness among the people. Advertising through internet pop-ups Offering different membership categories. Organising inter college championships Advertising through social networks. 2.4 Organization and management team: Management structure: A Management structure consists of activities such as task allocation, co-ordination and supervision, which are directed towards the acheivement of organizational aims (pugh, D.S., ed. 1990). In other terms management structure is defined as it is the form of structure that determines the hierarchy and the reporting structure inn the organization. Explicit and implicit institutional rules and policies designed to provide a structure where various work roles and responsibilities are delegated, controlled and coordinated to acheive the organizational goals is known as management structure. Therefore every organization i.e. from small scale organization to large scale organization will have a management structure. Without an organizational structure one cannot run business effectively. According to pugh, D.S. he has described management structure in to 3 types. They are, Traditional structure (based on the functions between line and staff managements) Divisional structure (based on different divisions in an organization. i.e. product division, market division, and geographic division) Matrix structure (it is the mixture of both traditional and divisional structures.) Therefore according to our business proposal, as our business is on a small scale. The initial owners will be 4 partners. Every thing is carried on the basis of divisional management structure, by categorising on the product, market,and geograpgic structures. As our business idea throws a light on incremental stage also, there will be a chance of recruitments in the future. 2.5 Operations: There are certain feature milestones for our business, those are set for the development of the business by all means in the international market, the key reason that is forecasted in our business plan are on the primary purpose Milestones: every business has its milestones to achieve so as to work on the first step is to establish firmly in the local market and the next step is to enter into the national market and the third step is to enter into the international market by franchise way, Franchise is a kind of vertical marketing system with a contractual relationship between the franchisor and franchisee, (Brassington and Pettitt, 2006, Pg. 1082), and on later expansion there will be a cafà © and bar in addition for the lateral income to the business Project and events: Pro-Gamers will sponsor teams from the operative country and sponsoring them to WCG and on the other hand we will be organising tournaments in between the operative countries and also there will be tournaments from the universities in the operating countries, which has its key reasons to keep us active and also to gain profit from these kinds of activities. Resources and Locations: in our Pro-Gamers business the resources are in general will in collaboration of IGUK.Org and associates providing all the required equipments like (n Vidia, WD Raptor, Creative sounds, AMD, Keconnect Broadband, EXS systems), supports all game publishers by buying their games and to reject all forms of piracy,(IGUK.Org sponsors), followed by the locations in the initial stage it will be organised near the university or in permission of the university premises, and later in the slightest increment in organising it will be setup in the large stadiums, with this there will be standard cash flow which will be helping us in the development of our business. SMEs Internationalization: 3.1 Role of SMEs: Business is a profession that starts with purpose of making profits out of it, and theres a fact that should never be kept out of focus that is by all means to develop the business, its development, growth, expansion in the sense of local to international markets. It is always said that SMEs involvement in international markets is increasing (Hall and Donchels 1988, Lamb and Liesch 2002), yet SMEs are not fully represented in the international economy as large firms (Fujita 1988). Well SMEs are though in the international economy but their reliability and feasibility are questioned by the big players, but in the recent times there were many reports which says that SMEs will play a greater role in the rapidly changing economic environment (WIPO General Assembly, Twenty-six (12th Extraordinary) Session Geneva, 25/09/2000 3/10/2000), so we often come across the term SMEs so lets know what is a SME as it is defined as, The category of micro, small and medium-sized (SMEs) is made up of e nterprises which employ fewer than 250 persons and which have an annual turnover not exceeding 50 million euro, and/or an annual balance sheet total not exceeding 43 million euro. Extract of Article 2 of the Annex of recommendation 2003/361/EC (European Commission). The researches says that the SMEs are real player of the todays economy in comparing to the large businesses, but there are also some reports that says that they also fail as it is the span of business or lack in improvement to survive or cannot sustain the competition from the other business firms, A study by Equifax has revealed that the retail sector saw a 17.2 per cent rise in business failures last year, with many SMEs forced to close their doors, reports Creditman, Neil Munroe, the external affairs director at Equifax, confirmed that a number of the failures recorded would be small businesses, (SMEs business failure rate increases, Published On 8 January 2007). 3.2 SMEs Market Expansions: Well though business starts from some point, but there is a point that a business can develop itself to the international level by entering into the international market. Which is in the term called as Internationalization, well we are talking about internationalization lets know what is internationalization as there are many definitions that internationalization is defined but there is no exact definition to define it, as it can be defined in general term its an opportunity that is recognized by the firm to enter into the markets of different countries to expand their activities. This is what internationalization can be define or said in general. 3.3 Pro Gamers Internationalization: As it is defined the business of LAN (Local Area Network) gaming centre Pro-Gamers', which is our small business that we are going to start, as it is defined that at some stage it is in need to recognize an opportunity to enter into different market from, local to national and international in an order to expand our activities by all means considering all the ethical marketing issues in a specified market. As our gaming centre is basically a new kind of gaming centre that is different from the other gaming centres of indoor game activities or casinos, though it is well known in the international market but the confusion that is always observed by the audience in the locality of the Liverpool, is that it is the same kind of gaming centres like the casinos and the indoor game centre, which is basically not of that kind and it differentiate from the other gaming centres by all means. The market that is observed in the North West region of England does not have this kind of gaming centre to the farthest reach of people of Liverpool. 3.4 Gaming Market of North West of UK: Liverpool has 4 casinos. Our database says there are 35 gaming machines in Liverpool, and 45 total table games., as for these are the casino and indoor gaming centres these centres does not meet the exact criteria to Pro-Gamers, so this is one of its kind as mentioned, this game centre will have all the state of the art technology for the gaming purpose and all kind of games that makes its customers to experience the good gaming experience. 3.5 Entering into the International market: There are several reasons to enter into the international market or supply chain relies on the development of a supportive business environment for SMEs and the build-up of the human, technical, and financial capacity of these SMEs so they can understand the policies and operations of global supply chains and profitably respond to those requirements. (Pg 1, Enabling SMEs to enter into the International Supply Chain, June 2005) . These are certain reasons that makes Pro-Gamers to enter into the international market to expand our activity, as we mentioned earlier that we will be providing a membership options to the customers to play in the respective platforms and, later on to the interest of the customers we will be organising teams and sponsoring them to represent U.K, and later as we enter into the international market we will be expanding our activity and then we will be organising team from the operating countries and they will be battling against each other in the WCG and in occasions there will be tournaments between the Pro-Gamers teams from the operating countries in the mean time 3.6 SMEs Advantages and Disadvantages: As it is said the SMEs have the advantage compared to the Multinational Co., because it tend to Includes faster and more streamlined decision making process Less bureaucracy Low fixed cost, and More agility to responding to new customers needs and changes in the business climate. (European IT SMEs in India SMEs in focus: Main results from the 2002 Observatory of European SMEs). Pro-Gamers is a micro business unit has the advantage in comparing to the other gaming or casinos of its nature of being a micro business unit and having low number of employed personnel thus the maintenance is low and, it has the benefit of one time investment in local but as it grows to the international markets it need more investments and more persons to employee and expand the activities into the international markets. There are some disadvantages in the SMEs Internationalization which in general, include limited working capital and resources, more difficulty in attracting and retaining talented workers, and higher transaction costs. SMEs also tend to be young, specialized companies, which means they lack the scale and scope of larger firms. A small number of managers leaves SMEs with a lack of collective experience as well as a limited bench to draw from for new initiatives. Many SMEs are also suppliers to much larger multinationals, which often translates to a lack of bargaining power(European IT SMEs in India, Eric Olsson, Peter Schumacher pg 1). Resource constraints of SMEs can be turned to their advantage by maintaining flexibility and resource leveraging (David, D and Freel, M, entrepreneurship and small firms), as for the resource gathering the IGuk.org is reliable sponsor of all kind of hardware and software installation as for the pert of infrastructure and they also provide guidance for the financial approvals and financial activities. 3.7 Network Model: The network model is based on the social exchange of firms, there is always a network of organisation that come in touch of the new emerging business and thus IGUK.org is a kind of an organisation that introduces and provides all kind of support from the government as well as from the private investors, well entering into the international market there is an Org that will help in establishing LAN game centres iGames.Org, thus continues interaction will eventually increase the speed up in process of the organisational set up. These are details regarding the countries that has won the medals in the international WCG championship these are some of the primary sources and thus, there is another primary data the illustrate the area of operation of the international gaming organisations which is in the below chart. Thus these are some of the primary data that is collected in the initial market research Secondary data: The secondary that is gathered is by a questioners which is provided to the respondent and the result of the active respondent showed that this business is new and some thought that its an old business model but on later discussion with the respondent and making them aware of the business it just came to approve that most of the respondent are very much positive of the business, there we almost all of 60 respondent of which almost all were positive and some were not sure about what is the business but the positive respondent made it to appear a good customer response. There is questioner is attached to the file and its a prototype. Joint venture Strategies: Joint venture and strategic alliances is a process that Pro-Gamers is in the purpose of alliance that we are going to opt for the international market to set up our business and iGamer.Inc and WCG.Org are the international partners for us to establish in the international market and grow our business in all times there are certain countries that is targeted to enter, most of these countries are the economy of emerging and transition like India, Brazil, Turkey, Pakistan, Sri lanka these are some of the target market in the internationalization of our business.

Crusades :: essays research papers

Crusades   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Crusades began in 1088 when Urban II preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont. The reason for such a mass following of people to leave their homes and travel to the Holy Land to fight is unknown. There are numerous plausible causes, which will be discussed in this paper.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The reason the Pope preached the Crusades originally was the supposed threat of Muslim rule. In truth the Muslims and Christians in the Holy Land had lived peacefully for years, but the Pope was also a politician. Many believe that his motive was to gain political power by gaining control of all of the Muslim territories. This feat was accomplished by the and of 1099 and four new states were set up after the first crusade had ended.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is fairly easy to see why the Pope would want to incite the crusades, but why would normal people leave all they had to carry out this Holy War? Many people believed (because this is what the Pope told them) that all of their sins would be forgiven if they carried out this momentous task. They were practically guaranteed a place in heaven. Other crusaders went in search of gold and riches that they would take after plundering the Jewish and Muslim villages. Many younger sons of aristocrats went in search of land because their older brother had inherited the family’s land. An additional reason for men and women to go fight may have been pride. “Keeping up with the Jones’s'; is not a new concept. Many people may have felt pressured to join the crusades along with their neighbors and after committing to go one could not turn back with the penalty of excommunication. The crusades also created business for maritime cities.

History Extended Essay

History Extended Essay 20th Century Stalinist Architecture How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world 1947-1957? On the Cover (Figure 1) – Kotelnicheskaya Embankment residential complex dominates over the Kremlin Cathedrals in Moscow’s skyline. 1. Abstract Stalin’s Seven Sister buildings (Vysotki) irreversibly transformed the vast skyline of Moscow, and ultimately aided Stalin in his pursuit of a contemporary European city after World War II.Although these massive architectural masterpieces hold a legacy that resonates magnificence throughout the architectural aspects of Stalin’s era, the Seven Sisters hold a controversial history behind them, considering the fact that the housing needs of the proletariat were disregarded after 1945 up until Khrushchev’s epoch. I have thus decided to investigate the means in which Stalinà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Seven Sister buildings transformed Moscow into a modern city whilst displaying Soviet communism to the world.Therefore, the subsequent question that comprehensively investigates the social, political and economic impacts of the Seven Sisters is: How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world from 1947-1957? This paper will investigate all the different aspects surrounding the creation of the Vysotki, and analyze the subsequent impacts on Soviet culture.This will be achieved by analyzing various primary and secondary sources regarding the Seven Sisters, along with a comprehensive interpretation of a lecture given in the Moscow Shchusev Architectural Museum that I attended on October 10th, 2012. Although the progression of Moscow into a contemporary European city is characterized by numerous different aspects, including the Moscow metro system and othe r forms of Stalinist architecture, the Seven Sisters ultimately defined Moscow with an architectural legacy that remains evident to present day.Therefore, Stalin’s Vysotki played a significant role in the creation of Moscow into a contemporary city, and presented Soviet Communism in Russia with architectural grandeur and magnificence. Abstract Word Count: 271 2. Introduction How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world from 1947 to 1957? In order to conceptualize the political, economic and social status of the Soviet Union after World War II, it is essential to evaluate the impact of the war on the USSR in multiple aspects.In 1945, while the Red Army controlled all of Eastern Europe and occupied such cities as Riga, Vilnius, Tallinn, Sofia, Budapest, Prague, Vienna and Warsaw, much of Russia’s European cities lay destroyed from 4 years of war . The Soviet population suffered an estimated 25 million deaths during the course of the war; a statistic that significantly exceeds the number of deaths of any other country in the world during the war. Similar to the decimation of its population, the Soviet Union’s economy was substantially depleted after the war.Approximately one fourth of Russia’s capital resources were destroyed, subsequently causing a dramatic decrease in the Soviet Union’s industrial and agricultural output, contrary to the output goals set forth by the Five Year Plans. On the other hand, the political status of the Soviet government had relatively positive prospects, as the Soviet Union was virtually the only power in Continental Europe to emerge from the war with the same political regime it had at the start of the war.Stalin remained in power throughout the course of the war, and essentially continued his oppressive rule after 1945, sending national minorities and even Soviet prisoners of war suspected of supporting fascism to mass exile. Despite the economic depression of the Soviet Union after World War II, Joseph Stalin thought the USSR needed a strategy to glorify its capital, Moscow, to celebrate the great victory and send a message to its former allies who were rapidly becoming its geopolitical rivals – the US and Western European Allies.Stalin’s architectural ideology at this point was not to resolve the crushing housing crisis and rebuild the devastated nation, but to spend a major portion of government funding on the building of what would become Moscow’s Seven Sister buildings, or Vysotki (literally translated as â€Å"high-rise buildings†). The original planning for the Seven Sisters was based on Boris Iofan’s prize-winning plan for the Palace of Soviets building, a grand political edifice that was meant to exceed the Empire State Building in overall height.Essentially, the creation of the Vysotki would allow Stalin t o leave his own personal imprint on the city’s skyline, and to rival many other world powers at the time – such as Great Britain and the United States, which had their own prized architectural landmarks recognized the world over. While the Palace of Soviets was never built, its construction repeatedly delayed by the onset of the war and diversion of steel to the munitions and weapons factories, the process did leave an indelible imprint on the city, as the monumental Cathedral of Christ the Savior was torn down to make room for the Palace. . Background Information Figure 2 – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Figure 2 – Ministry of Foreign Affairs The erection of the Vysotki started in 1947, two years after the end of World War II. The prospective plans for the creation of the Seven Sisters included three ministries, three hotels and one multi-purpose governmental building. In terms of location, the general plan for the placement of the buildings was to arrange the Seven Sisters in a circle, surrounding the center of Moscow.This plan was done to aesthetically balance the skyline of Moscow, as most of the buildings in the city at the time were at most six or seven stories in height. Strategically placing these huge, innovative structures evenly throughout the city would give Moscow a new aura to it after the war, and would essentially transform Moscow into a modern European city. The first of the Seven Sisters to be finished was the Ministry of Foreign Affairs building (see Figure 2), which was built from 1947 to 1954. The main architects behind this building were V. G. Gelfreih  and  A. B.Minkus, and the creation of this building ultimately set the benchmark for the next six Vysotki, as it stood out in the city with both magnificence and its grand scale. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs building had certain stylistic features that influenced the plans for the other six Vysotki, such as obelisks in the main entrance, the Soviet hammer an d sickle on the sides of the building, and the massive spire on top of the central tower. The specific use of the hammer and sickle symbol on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs building suggests the Soviet Union’s strength, as it projected the power of the Soviet diplomacy world over.The building reached a total of 172 meters, including 27 stories, making it the tallest building in Moscow at the time. The second of the ministries, after the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, is the Red Gates (Krasniye Vorota) administrative building. Designed by Alexei Dushkin, this administrative building is 133 meters tall, containing 24 usable floors. The method in which this Vysotka was built is particularly innovative, as Dushkin proposed erecting the building initially tilted to one side, so that the weak soil of Moscow would not have a negative impact on the structural stability of the building.More than 200 holes were drilled and filled with ice under the foundation of the building, to maintai n the soil’s strength while the building was being constructed. As this Vysotka concluded construction, the ice was deliberately melted and the tilted building shifted into an upright state, in which it currently stands. The purpose of this building was to house the Ministry of Railways, with whose officials Alexei Dushkin himself cooperated during the design and construction. Dushkin is known mostly for his work on the Moscow Metro stations; however, the Ministry of Railways holds a well-respected place in his architectural legacy.Although the initial plans for the Seven Sisters included three ministry buildings, only two were built, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Railways. The third ministry building was replaced by the Moscow State (Lomonosov) University building, upon Stalin’s demand. Drafted by Boris Iofan and inaugurated in 1953, the Lomonosov University building is 236 meters tall, with 36 floors. The sheer magnitude of this building dominat ed the Moscow skyline in its early years and is visible from many points of the city to this day. It still holds the title of being the world’s largest educational building.In this respect, Stalin partially achieved one of his objectives: the recognition of Moscow as a contemporary European city on a global scale. 4. Influences of Stalinist Architecture In order to analyze the effect of the Seven Sisters on the transition of Moscow to a contemporary European city, it is essential to establish Stalinist Architecture as a short-lived architectural style that experienced a definite starting point and definite end. This aspect of Stalinist architecture is specifically unique, as other styles of architecture are typically dispersed throughout long periods of history, without defined start and end dates.Therefore, the defined beginning of Stalinist architecture, sometimes referred to as Stalinist Gothic or Socialist Classicism, originated in 1933, with Boris Iofan’s design f or the massive Palace of Soviets building. Throughout a defined 20 year time period, Socialist Classicism reigned dominant in the Soviet Union as the preferred style of architecture. However, in 1955, two years after Stalin’s death, Nikita Khrushchev issued a decree â€Å"On Excesses in Architecture† that deemed Stalinist architecture extinct and began the start of a new architectural age in Moscow and the rest of the Soviet Union.Khrushchev’s preferred style of architecture, compared to Stalin’s love for architectural magnificence and grandiose Roman Empire inspired design, was significantly more conservative, as Khrushchev and his administration focused on a pragmatic solution to the lack of housing for the masses in the Soviet Union. The architecture in Moscow after 1955 was therefore relatively simplistic and practical, and was ultimately defined by the khrushchyovka, 5 story, identical, pre-fabricated apartment buildings meant to house a significant amount of families in relatively tight quarters.Named after Khruschev himself, the key element of these buildings was the rapid production of their concrete panels in manufacturing plants and rapid assembly on site. The intent of these buildings was to resolve the housing shortage rapidly, as their life span was projected as 40 years – an architectural and construction strategy whose impact is now being acutely felt in modern Russia, as these building are now crumbling and require replacement.Figure 3 – Boris Iofan’s winning design for the never-built Palace of Soviets – Recreated in 3D Max as a modern rendering of what the building would look like if it were constructed20. Figure 3 – Boris Iofan’s winning design for the never-built Palace of Soviets – Recreated in 3D Max as a modern rendering of what the building would look like if it were constructed20. Shifting to the influences on Socialist Classicism as an architectural style, it is essential to consider the effect of Ancient Greek and Roman style on Soviet Architects from 1933 to 1955.As Boris Iofan’s winning design for the Palace of Soviets building essentially defined the boundaries of Stalinist architecture, Iofan’s individual influences must be taken into consideration (see Figure 3). After visiting New York, Chicago, Rome and Berlin, Iofan remarked in an issue of the Soviet newspaper Pravda that â€Å"wherever I [Iofan] might travel, whatever I might see, I approached everything from a particular point of view: what of all this has to be ‘taken home’ to the Soviet Union†.Therefore, Iofan’s ideology essentially reflects upon Stalinist architecture with influences from American, Italian (subsequently Roman), and German architecture. Although Stalin marveled at the Seven Sisters and Iofan’s Palace of Soviets plan, he ultimately contradicted himself and disregarded Iofan’s work as being too â€Å"cos mopolitan† (Western-influenced) and lacking stylistic features individual to the Soviet Union. 5. Relevance of Stalinist ArchitectureIn order to assess the relevance of Stalinist architecture between 1945-1957, it is important to put the events of the Cold War into context. First of all, tension between the United States and the Soviet Union continuously rose from 1945 to 1957, starting with the disagreements between the USA and the USSR at the Yalta conference in February 1945 and the Potsdam conference in July 1945. For instance, at the Yalta conference, Roosevelt and Churchill did not accept Stalin’s proposal to annex Eastern Poland.Furthermore, at the Potsdam conference, Stalin promised free elections past the Oder-Neisse line. However, free elections were never held and the Soviet government eventually persecuted Polish nationalists. In terms of economic reconstruction, the Soviet Union had joined the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1944. Ho wever, when the Soviet Union applied for a $6 billion loan from the United States, America immediately imposed conditions on the loan.These conditions included the opening of eastern European markets to American products, which in effect reflected the â€Å"dollar diplomacy† strategy of the United States – using its economic power and intact industry to reach its geopolitical goals on the devastated European continent. Stalin’s reaction to the forced conditions on the six billion dollar loan was undoubtedly negative. However, the Soviet Union was in great need of funding after its economy was significantly depleted after the war.However, Stalin had controversial aims as to what would be done with all government funding regarding the reconstruction of Russia after World War II. With millions of people deceased and hundreds of thousands of homes destroyed, it is argued by many historians that the building of Khrushchyovka, small and simplistic residential building s built to maximize housing space and housing multiple families in communal apartments, would more rapidly reconstruct Russia after the war.However, Stalin focused more on the creation of the Vysotki rather than Khrushchyovka, thus using a substantially larger portion of the government’s money on expensive, grand buildings, yet not spending enough on building pragmatic housing solutions that would have helped a much larger share of Soviet population. For example, the entire city of Stalingrad took approximately 2 billion Russian rubles to completely reconstruct after the war, however in comparison, the Moscow State Lomonosov University building took about 2. 6 billion Russian rubles alone, approximating 415 million British pounds in contemporary monetary terms.Stalin’s method of spending billions of rubles on the building of the Seven Sisters was immensely controversial. Nonetheless, while he remained in power very few people dared to oppose any of his decisions or his architectural ideology. In other words, up until March 1953, when Joseph Stalin died, Stalin’s cult of personality ultimately undermined any attempt to consider spending less governmental funds on the creation of the Vysotki. Public opinion after Stalin’s death was split, as one side favored the Seven Sisters, claiming that the new high-rise buildings essentially beautified the capital of Soviet Russia.Many others agreed with the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that Stalin’s spending spree on a few grand buildings did not benefit the Soviet Union and ultimately did more damage than good. One simple reason to criticize the Seven Sister project is that two of the grand buildings were built as hotels – Leningradskaya and Ukraine – catering to foreign tourists. However, the Cold War tensions slowed any tourism from the West to a trickle and the two hotels stood largely vacant, while millions of Russians struggled without adequate housing, their ho mes destroyed in the war. 6.Incorporation of the Seven Sisters into the City of Moscow In the architectural realm of the Soviet Union, the main project was to rebuild Moscow in an innovative and idealistically planned manner. This massive project to rebuild Moscow was placed in the hands of the Communist Party’s Central Committee, and in June 1931, a resolution was generated that essentially provided the guidelines of how each city was going to be rebuilt. The Union of Soviet Architects subsequently utilized these plans to determine the amounts of funding to be spent on the rebuilding of each Soviet city.Although the plans to reconstruct the city of Leningrad were considered the most prominent, the majority of funding was given to Moscow, as it was the nation’s capital. Therefore, the city of Moscow was to be deemed as the ideal â€Å"socialist city†, a utopia that reflected the ideology of Socialism and conveyed the positive link between architectural grandeur and Soviet achievements in all other realms of life – education, government, science, industry and the arts. However this model of a â€Å"socialist city† contained numerous ironies, due to the General Plan for Moscow’s components.The plan envisioned a relatively non-industrial landscape, as factories and other industrial plants were to be banned in central Moscow and mass housing (Kommunalka) significantly reduced. These plans, in effect, resembled the typical contemporary city of a capitalist society, such as the United States. Considering the incorporation of the Seven Sisters into Moscow in aesthetic terms, the general plans for rebuilding Moscow called for the Vysotki to be the predominant elements of the city’s skyline.Relating back to the initial plans of the prospective Seven Sisters, the design consisted of the seven high-rise buildings to be aligned in a circular formation. Although this was mainly done in order to balance the skyline of Moscow, thus avoiding the clutter of skyscrapers in a condensed area, Stalin proposed that this circular formation would psychologically and visually coronate the capital city of Russia. The Seven Sisters, would therefore â€Å"crown† Moscow, representing architectural jewels, much like the composition of a literal crown.This idea of crowning Moscow suggests multiple things, including Stalin’s vision for Soviet pride in the victory in World War II and nationalistic ideology, as well as the suggestion that Moscow with its Seven Sisters is superior and more grandiose in contrast with other contemporary European cities. Figure 4 – Moscow State University (Lomonosov University) 7. Moscow’s Progression into a Contemporary European City Figure 5 – Moscow Metro, Kievskaya Station Figure 5 – Moscow Metro, Kievskaya StationWith consideration to Moscow’s gradual progression into a contemporary European city, the Seven Sisters and numerous other archit ectural projects all contributed to the innovative re-imaging and rebuilding of Stalin’s showpiece city. Perhaps one of the most glorious aspects of Muscovite architecture in a way that affects the city’s enormous 15 million population to this day is the Moscow city metro system (see Figure 5). Initially opened for use in 1935, the Moscow Metro was the first underground railway system in the Soviet Union.Although not only pragmatic in its use, moving close to 4 million people a day in 2012, the metro system in Moscow is famous for its stations’ architectural and artistic magnificence, complete with bronze chandeliers, marble floors and mosaic and sculptural art works unimaginable in the drab, utilitarian metro systems of New York or London. Furthermore, adding to the practicalities of the new Moscow, the urban planning of the city ultimately helped define Moscow as a modern European city. More specifically, it was the Moscow Master Plan of 1935 that ultimately o utlined the way Moscow was to be reconstructed.Stalin instigated a numerable amount of changes to the urban planning of Moscow, which in turn supported his funding of expensive â€Å"ensemble† projects, thus favoring luxury over the needs of millions of middle and lower class workers in the city. For instance, city blocks were to be increased from 2 hectares up to 15 hectares, and the population density was limited to 400 people per 1 hectare. Additionally, all new buildings were required to be at least 6 stories high, while first-rate streets (embankments) had to be 10 or 14 stories high.These new rules effectively banned the production of inexpensive and mass constructed housing units, as well as single-family houses. 8. Conclusion Figure 6 – Triumph Palace Figure 6 – Triumph Palace When evaluating the city of Moscow from an aesthetic point of view, it is the Seven Sisters that generally stand out most prominently among the vast skyline of Moscow. The Vysotki did not only leave a strong visual impact on the city, they also left both an architectural and social legacy that has proven to influence modern architecture throughout the world.There are numerous positive and negative impacts caused by the building of the Seven Sisters, which ultimately define the legacy of the massive Stalinist high-rises. First of all, Stalin’s Vysotki delivered a newfound architectural magnificence into the capital city of Moscow. With influences from Ancient Greek and Roman architecture, the Seven Sisters gave the city a luxuriously grand aura. The stylistic features of the Seven Sister buildings have been repeated several times in modern architecture globally, thus proving to be an influential legacy left by the Vysotki.For instance, the Triumph Palace in Moscow, built in 2004, takes the architectural magnificence of the Vysotki and converts the features into a modern representation of a Seven Sister building (see Figure 6). This massive apartment bui lding purposefully resembles a Seven Sister building, and is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Eighth† Sister. However, relative to the issues challenging the nation at the time of the construction of Stalin’s Seven Sisters, the Vysotki left unanswered the more pragmatic and humanistic problems, as the housing crisis after World War II was not resolved.As mentioned previously, the total funding of the Lomonosov State University building exceeded the total funding for the reconstruction of the entire city of Stalingrad. Of course Stalingrad did not have nearly as many plans for grand buildings as Moscow, however the lack of housing in Stalingrad was resolved much more effectively than in Moscow, in light of a relatively lower need for funding in comparison with the capital city. In terms of Stalin’s architectural preferences, Moscow was to be reconstructed as the ideal socialist city, with all unattractive mass housing units moved to the outskirts of the city.Al though these buildings eventually solved the issue of the lack of housing, the dull nature of the Khrushchyovka was criticized by many, claiming that the buildings constructed under Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev were aesthetically unpleasant. The method of constructing these mass housing units was parodied by the Soviet popular film â€Å"Irony of Fate†, which was produced in 1975, approximately 20 years after the initial implementation of these buildings.When determining the relevance of Stalin’s Seven Sister buildings, the question must be asked: How did the creation of Stalin’s ‘Seven Sisters’ transform Moscow into a contemporary city while simultaneously presenting Soviet Communism to the world from 1947-1957? Although the gradual transformation of Moscow into a modern European city is characterized by various different aspects, such as the urban planning and architecture of Moscow, the conclusion can be made that the Seven Sisters played a sig nificant role in Moscow’s progression.To a large extent, the Vysotki helped define the city of Moscow with an architectural legacy, and also gave Moscow the distinguished individuality that Stalin pushed for. In some aspects, Stalin’s Seven Sisters ultimately gave Moscow what the Khrushchyovka could not, architectural gems that are world-renowned to this present day. Sources: 1. Texts 1. Andreev, EM, et al. , Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922-1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. 2. Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press (2001). 3. Kustova, Anna. Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. 4. Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 126. 5. Mark Harrison. â€Å"The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression. † Department of Economics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK. April 2012. Page 2. 6. Kathleen Berton. â€Å"Moscow: An Architectural History. † New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. 7. Russian: , ? (Barzar, L. ), â€Å"?. ?. (M. A. Minkus)†, ?oscow, 1982. . William Craft Brumfield. â€Å"Landmarks of Russian Architecture: A Photographic Survey. † Singapore: Gordon and Breach Publishers, 1997. 9. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. 10. Russian: â€Å" 70 †, World Architecture Magazine, no. 14, 2005, . 30–52 (Moscow Metro, 70 Years, pages 30–52) 11. Melvyn P. Leffler, â€Å"Adherence to Agreements: Yalta and the Experiences of the Early Cold War†,  International Security, Vol. 11, No. (Summer, 1986), pp. 88–123 12. Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007),  Warlords: An E xtraordinary Re-creation of World War  II Through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, Da Capo Press. 13. Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007),  From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War, Cambridge University Press. 14. Russian: ? (?) 10 1935 ?. N 1435 â€Å"? † (SNK and the Central Committee of the CPSU. July 10, 1935 N 1435 â€Å"The Master Plan for Reconstruction of Moscow†) 2. Photographs 1. Fig. , Dmitry Chistoprudov, Misty Dawn Over Moscow: Kotelnicheskaya Embankment, 2011. Photograph. Own Work. 2. Fig. 2, Richard Anderson, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2009. Photograph. http://www. flickriver. com. 3. Fig. 3, Ilya Ilusenko, Palace of Soviets: The Soviet Union – 3D Max Rendering, May 11, 2012. Own Work. 4. Fig. 4, Dmitry A. Mottl, Lomonosov Moscow State University, September 21, 2012. Photograph. Own Work. 5. Fig. 5, A. Savin, Kievskaya Metro Station, 2010. Photograph. Own Work. 6. Fig. 6, Andreykov, Vikt orenko Street 10, 2011. Photograph. Own Work. ——————————————– 1 ]. Fig. 1, Dmitry Chistoprudov, Misty Dawn Over Moscow: Kotelnicheskaya Embankment, 2011. Photograph. Own Work. [ 2 ]. Mark Harrison. â€Å"The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression. † Department of Economics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK. April 2012. Page 2. [ 3 ]. Andreev, EM, et al. , Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922-1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. [ 4 ]. Stalin, Joseph; Molotov, Vyacheslav; Kaganovich, Lazar; Voroshilov, Kliment; Ordzhonikidze, Sergo; Kuibyshev, Valerian; Yakovlev, Yakov; Grinko, Grigoriy, From the First to the Second Five Year Plan.Moscow: Co-operative Publishing Society of Foreign Workers in the U. S. S. R. , 1933 [ 5 ]. Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press (2001). [ 6 ]. Kathleen Berton. Moscow: An Architectural History. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. Page 237. [ 7 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 8 ]. Kathleen Berton. Moscow: An Architectural History. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. Page 237. [ 9 ].Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 10 ]. Fig. 2, Richard Anderson, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2009. Photograph. http://www. flickriver. com. [ 11 ]. Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 126. [ 12 ]. Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 126. [ 13 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Mosc ow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 14 ].Kiernan, Maria. Moscow: A Guide to Soviet and Post-Soviet Architecture, Ellipis, London, 1998, p. 127. [ 15 ]. Russian: , ? (Barzar, L. ), â€Å"?. ?. (M. A. Minkus)†, ?oscow, 1982. Page 66. [ 16 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 17 ]. William Craft Brumfield. â€Å"Landmarks of Russian Architecture: A Photographic Survey. † Singapore: Gordon and Breach Publishers, 1997. Page 231. [ 18 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 216. [ 19 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 20 ]. Fig. 3, Ilya Ilusenko, Palace of Soviets: The Soviet Union – 3D Max Rendering, May 11, 2012. Own Work. [ 21 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 8. [ 22 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 23 ]. Melvyn P. Leffler, â€Å"Adherence to Agreements: Yalta and the Experiences of the Early Cold War†,  International Security, Vol. 11, No. 1 (Summer, 1986), pp. 88–123 [ 24 ]. Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007),  Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-creation of World War  II Through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, Da Capo Press. Page 285. [ 25 ]. Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007),  From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War, Cambridge University Press.Page 101. [ 26 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 27 ]. Kathleen Berton. â€Å"Moscow: An Architectural History. † New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1977. [ 28 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 29 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 30 ]. Russian: , ? (Barzar, L. ), â€Å"?. ?. (M. A.Minkus)†, ?oscow, 1982. [ 31 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 13. [ 32 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 33 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalin ism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 14. [ 34 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012. [ 35 ]. Fig. 4, Dmitry A. Mottl, Lomonosov Moscow State University, September 21, 2012. Photograph. Own Work. [ 36 ]. Fig. 5, A. Savin, Kievskaya Metro Station, 2010. Photograph. Own Work. [ 37 ]. Russian: â€Å" 70 †, World Architecture Magazine, no. 14, 2005, . 30–52 (Moscow Metro, 70 Years, pages 30–52) [ 38 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. Page 216. [ 39 ].Russian: ? (?) 10 1935 ?. N 1435 â€Å"? † (SNK and the Central Committee of the CPSU. July 10, 1935 N 1435 â€Å"The Master Plan for Reconstruct ion of Moscow†) [ 40 ]. Katerina Clark. â€Å"Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931-1941. † Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011. [ 41 ]. Fig. 6, Andreykov, Viktorenko Street 10, 2011. Photograph. Own Work [ 42 ]. Kustova, Anna. â€Å"Moscow’s Seven Sisters. † Lecture, Shchusev State Museum of Architecture, Moscow, Russia, October 10th 2012.

Application Of Theory Of Constraints In Commercial Printing Accounting Essay Example

Application Of Theory Of Constraints In Commercial Printing Accounting Essay Example Application Of Theory Of Constraints In Commercial Printing Accounting Essay Application Of Theory Of Constraints In Commercial Printing Accounting Essay This paper seeks to analyze and discourse the application of a Theory of Operations Management in an administration. I have selected a former employer, a commercial printing company, as the company to carry on a critical reappraisal of its operations. I have indentified legion jobs throughout the company s operations, but for this exercising, have decided to concentrate chiefly on the fabrication procedure. In making so, I was able to clearly place a specific country of concern within the operations procedure and use an applicable Theory of Operations Management. In my treatment I non merely applied the relevant theory, but besides justified the choice of such based upon the possible betterments in the fabrication procedure. The recommended alterations if applied will finally convey about a more efficient entity and an betterment in the quality of the merchandises and client focal point. Profitability would be realized and the measurings of which can be done with the usage of the theory as it enables for the computations of the associated execution hazard. The Company The company that has been selected for this assignment is Press-Box Printers Limited ; a household owned and operated commercial printery. The company has been in operation for over 35 old ages and is one of the taking industries of printed stuffs in the local industry. Press-Box Printers Limited has about 85 staff who are employed throughtout the four sections viz. Administration, Gross saless and Selling, Production and Ancillary. The nucleus merchandises manufactured includes books, magazines, and letter paper for a broad cross subdivision of other local Jamaican concerns and persons. The fabrication procedure incorporates the inputs of labor, electricity, paper, inks, chemicals and other applicable natural stuffs and transforms them to bring forth full service publishing solutions ( See Appendix 1. ) . The company uses Offset Lithography ( See Appendix 2. ) , Letterpress and Digital printing techniques, each of which produces a alone consequence depending on the demands of its diverse client base. The Problem The big substantial occupations are those that require the usage of Offset Lithographic printing and over the past 15 old ages, the company has lots its command to retain or to get such contracts. It was discovered that the tendered commands for moneymaking contracts were unsuccessful as they are being alternatively given to entities that are either new or have invested in new engineering and equipment. Press-Box Printers monetary value points are deemed to be uncompetitive. A major lending factor is that the printing imperativenesss are antiquated and can reproduce merely a upper limit of two colorss at a clip. Major occupations require a lower limit of five colorss. Therefore, for Press-Box to fabricate such a occupation, it would hold to go through through the printing imperativeness at least three times. This is deemed to be really inefficient. The input costs of labor, electricity and stuff to bring forth a individual five coloring materials occupation has been proven to be highly high. Further, other internal every bit good as external costs have been identified. The internal costs includes ; ( I ) bit cost of hapless quality as parts must be discarded, ( two ) the re-work cost of repairing faulty merchandises, and ( three ) downtime cost due to the repairing of equipment or replacing faulty merchandise ( s ) . External costs identified were ; ( I ) the cost of reacting to client ailments, ( two ) the cost of managing and replacing poor-quality merchandise ( s ) , and ( three ) lost gross revenues incurred because of client good will impacting future concern. In visible radiation of the above issues of concerns, I have selected to utilize the Theory of Constraints ( TOC ) to review the current fabrication pattern of Press-Box Printers Limited. By using the theory, I will be able to supply elaborate analyses and to urge the manner frontward. Discussion of relevant theory The development of the methodological analysis of TOC can be traced to the development by Dr. Eliyahu Moshe Goldratt of a commercially successful software-based fabrication scheduling plan known as optimized production Timetables ( OPT ) , but this was nevertheless changed in 1982 to Optimized Production Technology ( OPT ) ( Jacobs 1983 ) . With the publication of The Goal, Goldratt used his influential instruction manner to educate the universe about pull offing constrictions ( restraints ) and his new thoughts about public presentation ( Goldratt and Cox 1984 ) . Several early executions brought about the disclosure of the importance of ; ( I ) placing resources as constriction and non-bottleneck, ( two ) holding idle clip or protective capacity on non-bottleneck resources, ( three ) doing planetary public presentation steps an built-in constituent as opposed to efficiency based steps that are considered local and ( four ) explicating a focussed betterment procedure. Theory of Constraints ( TOC ) has evolved over the past two decennaries from a simple production scheduling technique to a systems attack which is chiefly concerned with pull offing alteration. Klein A ; DeBruine ( 1995 ) province that originally set out to invent a systematic attack to placing what was forestalling a company from accomplishing its end of maximizing net income for its stakeholders. The attack was foremost used in a fabrication environment and reported at an American Production and Inventory Control Society ( APICS ) conference in 1980. Hrisak ( 1995 ) informs that TOC is now being used worldwide by companies of varied industries and sizes. He farther states that directors who routinely use TOC were convinced they got a better apprehension of the operations of their several concerns and are able to accomplish a sense of control and take action. He says that TOC allows directors to be empowered by supplying a dependable and consistent model for naming jobs. The TOC methodological analysis encompasses a broad scope of constructs, rules, solutions, tools and attacks. The Theory of Constraints has two expansive places ; ( I ) the concern system and ( two ) a go oning sweetening of the procedure itself. From the concern system position, TOC emphasises three dimensions that of mentality, measurings, and methodological analysis ( 3Ms ) . ( Boyd and Gupta 2004 ) explains that ; Mindset is frequently referred to as finding the system s planetary end. A most of import premise of TOC is that every for-profit concern has the aim of making more money now every bit good as in the hereafter ( Goldratt and Cox 1984 ) without go againsting certain indispensable conditions. Two such conditions conferred in Goldratt ( 1994 ) are that: ( I ) present current every bit good as future fulfilling work environment for employees, and ( two ) supply value and satisfaction to the market. Foregrounding the difference between the end, the aim of which is to continuously heighten net incomes, and the necessary conditions which is to convey to a specific threshold value, TOC distinguishes itself from other direction theoretical accounts as it presents a system that when implemented, makes for a more robust model. The measuring of a system s public presentation is to presume that a house s end is to go more profitable and in so making, TOC proposes a set of planetary operational steps. These steps are throughput, stock list and operating disbursals. The operational steps are said to be: ( I ) fiscal in nature, as they can be translated to steps such as net net income, and return on investing ( 3708 M. Gupta and D. Snyder ) ( two ) they are easy applied at any degree of an administration, and ( three ) warrant that local determinations are in maintaining with the net income end of the house ( Goldratt1990a, Goldratt and Fox 1993, Noreen et Al. 1996 ) . This facet of TOC, termed throughput accounting , has been discussed extensively in accounting literature ( Corbett 1999, Dugdale and Jones 1996, Noreen et Al. 1996 ) and compared, contrasted, and incorporated with activity-based cost accounting. The methodological analysis, the last of the 3m s, speaks to the uninterrupted betterment of the system. Ever since the launch of optimized production engineering ( OPT ) as a production planning and control methodological analysis, TOC has developed into a uninterrupted betterment methodological analysis. TOC states that every concern system has at least one restraint and for the most portion, really few. A restraint is defined as that which limits the system from accomplishing greater degree of public presentation relation to its declared end. Goldratt proposed a five-step focussing procedure for pull offing restraints and continuously bettering the system. Cardinal to this focussed procedure are the constructs of V-A-T procedure construction analysis, drum-buffer-rope, and buffer direction which are used to develop the restraint s agenda, regulate and manage buffer stock lists within an organisation. TOC is possibly non normally considered by systems modellers to be portion of the systems literature, but it is a systems methodological analysis in that it strives to guarantee that any alterations embarked upon as portion of a uninterrupted procedure of sweetening will be of benefit to the system as a whole, instead than merely an stray section of the system. Even at the cardinal degree of operations, TOC provides directors with a set of tools that will maneuver them to bring out replies to the basic issues associating to alter. The issues are ; ( I ) what to alter, ( two ) what to alter to, and ( three ) how to consequence the alteration. Goldratt ( 1990b ) , Klein A ; DeBruine ( 1995 ) A ; Dettmer ( 1997 ) states that TOC views an administration as a concatenation composed of many links, or webs of ironss. Often times viewed as a forced system, a concatenation s links all contribute to the over-arching end and each nexus is really much dependant on the other links. However, the concatenation itself is merely every bit strong as its weakest nexus. With this in head, Goldratt s TOC states that the overall public presentation of an administration is limited by its weakest nexus. He farther argues that if an administration wants to better its public presentation, the first measure must be to place the system s weakest nexus, or restraint. Stairss in the procedure of ongoing betterment Goldratt ( 1990b, Goldratt and Cox 1992 ) introduced a technique called the five focusing stairss ( See Appendix 3. ) for undertaking system jobs on a uninterrupted betterment footing. The stairss are ; ( I ) to place the restraint in the procedure that is restricting the efficiency of the system. This could be a physical every bit good as a policy restraint ( two ) make usage of the restraint to accomplish the best possible end product from the restraint by eliminating insufficiencies that inhibit the flow, and cut down non-productive clip, so that the restraint is used in the most effectual manner possible ( three ) subsidiary other activities to the restraint by associating the productiveness of other operations to be suiting the restraint. This should ensue in an elementary work flow and avoid build up of work-in-process stock list. A critical point nevertheless, is to forestall the restraint from holding to wait for work ( four ) elevate the restraint and in state of affairss wh ere the system restraint still does non hold satisfactory degrees of end product, an investing in new equipment or an addition in staff is recommended to increase end product ( V ) if alteration has occurred, travel back to step one and measure whether another process or policy has turn out to be the system restraint. Goldratt ( 1990b ) states that this measure is consistent with a procedure of ongoing betterment. Predating the Five Focusing Stairss, Goldratt ( 1986, 1990b ) prescribes two excess stairss, which Coman and Ronen ( 1994 ) include in the focusing stairss, hence redefining them as a seven-step method. The two excess stairss included at the beginning are ; ( I ) specifying the system s Goal and ( two ) determine proper, planetary and simple steps of public presentation. Scheinkopf ( 1999 ) describes these as prerequisite stairss for any betterment in the procedure. As is indicated, a main rule of TOC is that all systems have restraints that prevent it from accomplishing its end. The accent therefore, is to concentrate attempts on holding those restraints produce more, either by moving on the restraints straight, or on the other operations that interact with them. TOC s Five Focusing Steps supply a straightforward but successful method to uninterrupted betterment in cases where the restraint can be easy identified. Conversely, if the restraint is caused by cases of policies or behaviors, or farther completed state of affairss, the restraint may be more hard to place, therefore doing the preparation of a solution hard. If this were the instance, the TOC Thinking Procedures are more utile in make up ones minding what to alter, what to alter to, and how to convey about such a alteration. Similar to the Five Focusing Stairss in that it focuses on the restraint, the Thinking Processes focal point on the factors that are presently forestalling the system from accomplishing its ends. The Thinking Processes achieves this by first placing the symptoms within the system, which present verification that the system is non executing every bit good as is desired. From this place, the assorted TOC Thinking Process tools are so applied to deduce the causes of those symptoms, what needs to be done to rectify those causes, and how such remedial actions could be carried out. By making this, the TOC attack is to map the system from the place of the current trouble, instead than seek to pattern the whole system. A really swoon but major discrepancy, this allows for complex jobs to be addressed without holding to wholly pattern the full system. The TOC Thinking Process begins with a Current Reality Tree, which detects what in the system, needs to be changed. The Evaporating Cloud is so used to derive a deeper apprehension of the struggle within the system environment. Additionally, the Evaporating Cloud provides thoughts of what can be changed to interrupt the struggle and decide the focal issue of concern. The Future Reality Tree uses these thoughts for alteration and ensures that the freshly established world would in fact decide the unsatisfactory systems conditions and non convey about new 1s. The Prerequisite Tree identifies obstacles to the execution and attacks to predominate over them. The Transition Tree can be seen as the creative activity of a elaborate execution program. Goldratt s tools are designed to get the better of opposition to alter as a logical way is created that can be easy followed. The five tools can be used individually or as a whole but this all depends nevertheless on the complexness of the state of affairs. Many applications of the Thinking Procedures have been published since its introduction in Goldratt ( 1994 ) ; and there have been many illustrations presented in the APICS Constraints Management Symposiums, and in books such as Noreen et Al ( 1995 ) , and Kendall ( 1998 ) . Recommendation and Justification Having identified the restraint in Press-Box Printers operational procedure, the undermentioned recommendation is being made ; the organisation should get a newer more efficient five coloring materials publishing press.The machine being proposed and the specifications are as follows: Model: Heidelberg SM 74-5-H Year: 2005 Impressions: 74 million ( approx. ) Sheet size: Width 52 centimeter Height 74 centimeter Colorss: multi-colour ( 5 ) Auto home base burden The above machine is deemed idle for the nature and range of the printing production procedure at Press-Box Printers ( See Appendix 4 ) . The acquisition would replace at least three Heidelberg, two coloring material printing imperativenesss presently in usage which have a combined mean age of 28 old ages. In using TOC to the administration s operational and systems challenges will necessitate the hazard of investing capital. The Rate of Return ( ROI ) on such an investing can nevertheless be adequately measured by using TOC. In mensurating the ROI, the specifications of the recommended printing imperativeness should include its production capacity, cost to run inclusive of care ( OE ) , net net income ( NP ) obtained from the machine over a specific clip period, and investing ( I ) that was made to obtain the machine and bring forth the net net income. If these measures are known, return on investing ( ROI ) can be calculated as follows: ROI = NP I The net net income ( NP ) can be calculated from the difference between all the money generated, called per definition the throughput ( T ) of the machine, and the operating disbursals ( OE ) of the machine: NP = T OE Therefore: ROI = T OE I The definitions of the TOC measuring parametric quantities are as follows: Throughput: The rate at which the administration generates goal units ; Operating Expense: All the money the administration spends in bring forthing goal units ; and Investing: The money tied up in the administration . It should be noted that throughput is a hard currency step and therefore gross revenues on recognition or debitors on the books should be included in the investing. However, Throughput is merely recognized when hard currency has been received for the sale generated. This is a really different construct from normal accounting patterns which identifies a sale, be it hard currency or recognition. Another measuring of corporate public presentation is that of hard currency flow. Cash flow ( CF ) is the sum of money of net net income left after alterations in investing have been accounted for: CF = T OE -I. Negative investing, or a lessening in inventories/investment, therefore additions the hard currency flow of the concern. Managed a company as per TOC rules, the Economic Value Added ( EVA ) , which is a fiscal public presentation method to cipher the true economic net income of a company, will better. This is so as the fact that net net income ( NP ) , return on investing ( ROI ) and hard currency flow ( CF ) will increase due to the focal point on the restraints of the company. Simultaneously, the plus hazard, runing hazard, size and diverseness hazard and the strategic hazard of the company will be reduced. For that ground, the hazard factors that impact the cost of capital of the company will be reduced, taking to a decrease in the cost of invested capital. Jointly ; return on investing and cost of capital, which form portion of the EVA equation are therefore influenced positively by the application of TOC direction rules. Decision By geting the above recommended Heidelberg printing imperativeness, the efficiency of the fabrication procedure will be greatly improved. This betterment will be realized through the decrease of ; ( I ) stock list, ( two ) production clip, and ( three ) direct inputs such as labor and electricity. Improvements will be realized in: ( I ) rhythm clip, ( two ) on clip bringing / due day of the month public presentation, and ( three ) fiscal place ( throughput ) . Mentions Ackoff, R.L. ( 1978 ) . The Art of Problem Solving, Wiley. Aggarwal, S. and Aggarwal, S. , 1985. The direction of fabricating operations: an assessment of recent developments. 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International Journal of Flexible Manufacturing Systems, 12 ( 1 ) , 81-101. Rand, G.K. ( 1990 ) . MRP, JIT and OPT. In Hendry L.C. and R.W. Eglese, Operational Research TutorialPapers, 1990. Operational Research Society, Birmingham, England. Scheinkopf, L. ( 1999 ) . Thinking For Change: Puting the TOC Thinking Processes to Use. St. Lucie Press / APICS Series on Constraints Management: Boca Raton, FL. Spencer, M.S. , 1991. The end in an MRP system. Production and Inventory Management Journal, 32 ( 4 ) , 22-28. Spencer, M.S. and Cox, J.F. , 1995. Optimum production engineering ( OPT ) and the theory of restraints ( TOC ) : Analysis and family tree. International Journal of Production Research, 33 ( 6 ) , 1495-1504. Appendix 1 The Transformation Process Beginning: Figure 13. Transformation procedure theoretical account ( Armistead, Harrison et Al. 1996, 118 ) Appendix 2 The Offset Lithography Printing Process Beginning: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.compassrose.com/publishing/offset-printing.html Appendix 3 Five Focusing Stairss Beginning: Industrial research Institute hypertext transfer protocol: //www.iriweb.org/Public_Site/RTM/free/Whats_Constraining_Your_Innovation.aspx